Table 2 Characteristics of included studies

Allen et al., 2023 [31]

USA

93% > 65 years

SEER-Medicare-linked database from 2005 to 2017

Retrospective cohort study

74,309

White (53,893); Black/African American (8,185); Hispanic (7,131); Asian (4,889); American Indian/Alaska Native (211)

Pancreatic cancer

Pain, psychiatric symptoms, depression, anxiety, muscle spasms

Booker et al., 2020 [32]

USA

 > 65 years

TRIP Cancer Pain Intervention from February 2007 to February 2010

Case Control

64

African Americans (32); Caucasian Americans (32)

Cancer

Cancer diagnosis across all participants (n = 64)

Gastrointestinal: 19;

ENT: 17;

Musculoskeletal: 6;

Genitourinary: 5;

Lymphatic: 4;

Unspecified neoplasms: 2;

Endocrine and brain: 1;

Missing data: 10

Pain

Enzinger et al., 2023 [33]

USA

 > 65 years

Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services

Retrospective cohort study

318,549

White (272,358); Black (29,555); Hispanic (16,636)

Cancer

Cancer diagnoses across all participants (n = 318,549)

Lung: 33.3%;

Colorectal or anal: 8%;

Pancreas: 6.8%;

Esophagogastric: 5%;

Liver, gallbladder, biliary: 5.2%;

Prostate: 6.6%;

Bladder: 2.6%;

Kidney: 2.4%;

Non-Hodkin lymphomas: 6%;

Acute leukaemias: 4.3%;

Breast: 5.8%;

Ovarian: 2.6%;

Uterine: 1.2%;

Melanoma: 1.4%;

other: 6%

Pain

Haider et al., 2017 [34]

USA

Median (range): 59 (51–67)

MD Anderson Cancer Center’s outpatient palliative care clinic

Cross-sectional

750

White (529); Black (84); Hispanic (87); Other (50)

Cancer

Cancer types for total population (n = 750)

Breast: 97;

GI: 193;

Genitourinary: 57;

Gynaecologic: 49;

Head and neck: 94;

Haematologic: 22;

Lung: 169;

Others: 69

Pain

Munir et al., 2023 [35]

USA

66 + 

SEER-Medicare database from 2008 to 2016

Retrospective cohort study

48,631

Black (5589), Asian (3089), Hispanic (5862), white (32,374)

Advanced gastrointestinal cancer

Liver: 6551;

Pancreas: 13,559;

Gastric: 5486;

Colorectal: 23,035

Pain

Reynolds et al., 2008 [36]

USA

Median age (range): 81 (22–103) years

12 nursing homes in central North Carolina from 2001 to 2004

Cross-sectional

1,133

White 76.7%; ethnic minorities (not specified)

Dementia: 43.2%;

Stroke/Cerebrovascular accident: 28.4%;

Congestive heart failure: 23.7%;

Diabetes: 19.2%;

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): 9.1%;

Cancer: 4.8%

Pain

Rolnick et al., 2007 [37]

USA

Mean (range): 67 (20–79) years

Three large health maintenance organisations

Retrospective cohort study

421

White (348); African American (33);

Asian (17);

Hispanic (18); Native American (1);

Unknown (4)

Epithelial ovarian cancer

Pain

Sambamoorthi et al., 2000 [38]

USA

18 + 

New Jersey AIDS Registry, Medicaid claims files for drug and non-drug services, and the Medicaid eligibility file​

Retrospective cohort study

2,131

White (505); African American (1,228);

Latino/Latina (389)

AIDS

Pain

Saphire et al., 2020 [39]

USA

Mean (SD): 76.8 (6.6)

SEER-Medicare database, January 1, 2008 to December 31, 2014

Retrospective cohort study

16,246

White, non-Hispanic (13,077); Black, non-Hispanic (1,322);

Hispanic (828);

Asian, other (1,019)

Lung cancer

Non-small cell lung cancer: 12,898 (79.4%)

Pain, dyspnoea, emotional distress, fatigue, respiratory secretions, nausea, vomiting, anorexia

Tabuyo-Martin et al., 2022 [40]

USA

Mean (range): 58 (21—90) years

Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center

Retrospective cohort study

186

White (90); African American (46); Latino/Latina (42); Asian (6); Unknown (1)

Gynecoological cancer

Cervix: 42 (22.6%);

Ovary: 70 (37.6%);

Uterus: 61 (32.8%);

Vulva: 13 (7.0%)

Pain, agitation, nausea/vomiting, lack of appetite, constipation